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 Editorial

The identification of the Range of Circumstances in the Participating Countries has been the main outcome of the analysis phase in the WaterStrategyMan Project.

In order to determine the issues faced in managing water resources in arid and semi-arid regions, a detailed definition was sought of the current conditions in water deficient regions in terms of water resources, water supply, use patterns, water management practices and policies.

The project partners, therefore, determined those conditions in the designated countries, and through these reviews selected regions facing water scarcity for further study.

Fifteen regions were eventually selected as candidates for case study, and were further analyzed with respect to their specific characteristics. Of those, six were the ones finally picked as representative case studies, after a comprehensive typology analysis according to the identified water related problems.

This issue of the WSM Newsletter showcases the Range of Circumstances in Greece and in the three Greek candidate regions, Attica, Thessaly and the Cyclades Islands. This editorial is followed by a summary overview of the country, while the detailed texts can be found by clicking the links under "Topics" in the left bar.

The following Newsletter issues will present the wide range of circumstances in the other five countries (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Cyprus and Israel) and an overview of the candidate regions.

The WaterStrategyMan Project (Developing Strategies for Regulating and Managing Water Resources and Demand in Water Deficient Regions / WSM), is supported by the European Commission under the Fifth Framework Programme, under the Key Action "Sustainable Management and Quality of Water".

 Overview of Greece

Introduction

Greece has one of the greatest water resources potentials per capita in the Mediterranean area, and theoretically should have ample water for its population and traditional water uses; however water is not evenly distributed in space and time.

The maximum precipitation is recorded in the western parts, where the available water resources are consequently plentiful, while in other regions of the country precipitation is much lower and available water resources are insufficient to meet a growing demand.

Due to this inequality in water distribution, both in space and time, some areas of Greece, such as Attica and the Aegean Islands are facing long-term water shortage problems.

The permanent population of Greece according to the 2001 census was 10,964,080 inhabitants. The recorded tourist arrivals for 1998 were 11,363,822.

The climate in general is Mediterranean but varies significantly throughout the country due to various factors (the country being almost surrounded by sea, its geomorphology, and the north – south direction of the main mountainous chain).

In the country there are no plains in the geographical sense but only basins formed between mountain chains. One of the main characteristics of the country is its extended coastline and the significant number of islands. Geological formations are mainly composed of limestone and sedimentary rocks.

Figure 1 presents the geomorphology of the country, and Figure 3 shows the average precipitation per administrative region. These are 13 in total, and their boundaries do not entirely coincide with the 14 water regions (hydrological departments).

Figure 1. Geomorphology of Greece

Water Demand and Supply Status

 Water demand peaks in the hot and dry summer months, when water availability is at its lowest, due to the decrease in precipitation. The summer peak is due to the heat that encourages increased water usage, to the tourist activities and to the current irrigation practices and cultivated crop types.

In addition to the limited water resources, water pressure in some parts of the country may also be attributed to the large influx of visitors from other parts of the country or from abroad. Figures for tourist numbers vary from year to year and between measurements. The Aegean Islands have the highest visitor/tourist number compared to the permanent population. For example, in August the peak number of visitors to the Aegean Islands is on the average ten times greater than the local population, and in certain islands it is even thirty times the local one (Figure 2).

Approximately 14 km³/y of water entering Greece (about 30% of total average annual water resources) originates in neighbouring nations, where the water is both abstracted and used for effluent disposal.

The estimated amount of stored groundwater is about 10,300 hm³/year, formed primarily in sedimentary materials.

Nearly 100% of the Greek population is connected to water supply and power utilities, while 76% of the population is connected to sewerage and wastewater treatment networks.

Figure 4 presents the water demand per region, while Figure 5 shows the Consumption Index per Region. The Consumption index is the ratio of water consumed over the total water resources, expressed as a percentage.

Figure 2. Population density vs. accommodation availability in the Cycladic Islands (1996)

Conflicts arise in cases that the rivers are overabstracted upstream, and where the quality of the waters deteriorates to the point that it cannot be used for its intended use downstream. Since international agreements are still pending and the rate of exploitation increases in the upstream countries, quantity conflicts are also due to happen.

• In areas dependent on tourism, as the domestic supply takes priority over irrigation, conflicts invariably arise between the municipal water supply and the local farmers. The available water resources in the Greek islands are very limited, and with few exceptions consist of groundwater contained in the local aquifers. Overabstraction of those aquifers leads to salinisation of the water rendering it mostly unusable. The soils in the islands are extremely vulnerable to erosion with resulting problems in developing the water resources.

• In agricultural areas conflict arises due to the excessive demand for irrigation water, while large quantities are required for domestic supply, tourist activities and for maintaining the ecological characteristics of the surface and ground water of the area. The agricultural activities and practices in Greece have neither been “modernised” nor adapted to current requirements and standards, leading to vast amounts of water used for irrigation (85% of all demand), that could be drastically reduced through the introduction of more efficient irrigation networks and a better selection of crops in terms of water needs.
• In urban centers the main area for conflict is the transfer of water from other, richer in water resources regions, or the exploitation of water resources that would be used for irrigation. The Metropolitan Athens Area and Thessalonica are both water deficient urban centres.

Figure 3. Average precipitation in the 13 administrative regions

Environment and protection

Coastal waters of Greece are of good quality, with the exception of areas where effluents from the larger cities are discharged. The same does not apply to the surface and ground waters. Domestic effluents and agrochemicals are a major source of surface and groundwater pollution, despite the existing EU legislation for wastewater treatment. Until now, water pollution has been one of the main issues in trans-boundary water resources, as the disposal of raw domestic and industrial effluents has had profound effects on rivers.

No effluent charging systems exist and the sewage is discharged into the wastewater system for a nominal charge.

The quality of Greek river systems is dependent on the time of the year; water levels decrease significantly in the summer allowing higher concentrations of pollutants. Overabstraction and saline intrusion in the underground aquifers exacerbates the problem of groundwater deterioration and increases the water shortage problems.

Another important issue is the occurrence of periodic droughts and floods in increasing frequency in the recent years.  The combination of prolonged drought periods with intermittent floods after torrential rainfall worsens the pollution problems of urban and agricultural runoff.

Figure 4. Water Demand in the 13 administrative regions

Institutional framework and constraints

The administration and management of water is at the moment undergoing major changes due to the process of Greek legislation harmonization with respect to the European Water Framework Directive. At present, new legislation has been announced but not yet submitted for approval to the Parliament. Therefore the description of the institutional framework and management of water resources in the following paragraphs refers to the current situation and does not reflect the Water Framework Directive values and principles.

Responsibility on water allocation and management is distributed in the national, regional and local levels of administration. The initial allocation of water is effected by the Ministry of Development, which is responsible for water allocation to individual uses, as well as for the management of water designated for industrial use. Once the initial allocation is effected, the water for each use falls under the responsibility of the respective ministry.

On the regional level, the regional authorities are responsible for the approval of planning and financing for projects involving water supply and irrigation.

Prefecture authorities are responsible for the issuing of permits for abstraction and for the allocation of water within each region/use. On the local/municipal level, the municipality is responsible for the supply water and services to the people, or, for the creation of public companies responsible for the provision of water and sanitary services.

The most pressing issue is the fact that there are many government departments dealing with water problems, but their activities are compartmentalized and not well coordinated.

Added to this is a water law system which is not responsive to integrated water resources management and widely scattered, thus permitting overlapping functions, multiple advisory bodies and insufficiently decentralized management responsibilities through regional organizations. Legislation also tends to be deficient in the case of pollution issues, where quality standards for water bodies and/or effluent disposal have not been clearly established.

A Master Plan has yet to be formulated along with the corresponding management principles for the 14 water regions.

Figure 5. Consumption Index in the 13 administrative regions

Management, Institutional and policy options

The Greek legal system includes several laws and regulations for the allocation of water resources, the management of water resources and services, and the quality and quantity aspects of water regarding each use. According to Article 24 of the Greek Constitution, the protection of the natural environment is a responsibility not only of the state but also of the citizens. The state is under obligation to take preventive and corrective measures for the protection of the natural environment, both on the legislative and the administrative level. The protection of water resources is also regulated by a number of international agreements and legislation.

Currently the focus in Greece is on growth policies rather than on water resources management and policies. Law 1739/1987 (which as mentioned above is under revision) provides the basic framework for water management, which is however not currently fully applied. The management of resources is essentially effected on a regional level, after the initial allocation to uses.

The management of water resources is often poor and disorganized in the municipal level. Maintenance of infrastructure in the more remote areas tends to be poor, while long term contingency planning is almost non-existent. Financial constraints are the main reason behind the poor management and lack of planning.

Figure 6 presents the decision making process in Greece as it currently stands.

Overall short-term responses to water challenges are driven by crises that require the confrontation of the acute shortages. In cases of water shortage, supply augmentation management options are used most often.

Demand reduction management principles have been used in the past, particularly in the Athens Metropolitan Area in the early 1990’s, where increased water prices were successfully used to compensate for the prolonged drought that led to severe water shortages. However, such measures are not widely used as the price of water tends to play a pivotal role in political processes.

The means used to confront water shortages have depended mainly on the cost of the method; the first response to water shortages invariably involves new drilling of the aquifers. An alternative way of ensuring water supply is importing water from neighbouring, richer in water areas, and for permanent water shortage other structural solutions are preferred - dams and reservoirs are used where there are funds available, and locations suitable, for their construction. Desalination plants are also used in cases of more limited funds or lack of suitable locations.

There is great need for new approaches to water management that will mitigate such problem issues and constraints, and promote sustainable use of the available resources. A strategic approach is required that should include drastic measures of ecological rehabilitation, innovative institutional mechanisms, and a balance between autonomy and cooperation.

Figure 6. The current decision making process

Summary of water-related issues in Greece

• Dependence on transboundary waters flowing from non-EU regions, which are very difficult to regulate, particularly in matters of quality; the lack of infrastructure in the neighboring countries results in pollution downstream into Greek waters.
• Strong dependence on irrigation. Even with the best management techniques and strategies, agriculture will remain the major user of water in the country, due to the hot and dry climate.
• Pronounced seasonality of demand, which makes the provision of water services harder, as it is not always possible to ensure adequate supply.

i) The demand that is due to tourism peaks in the summer when a major influx of tourists is observed.

ii) The demand for agriculture peaks in the dry hot season, the same time as the domestic demand peaks due to tourism.

• Uneven distribution of resources. Both precipitation and surface water resources are concentrated in the western and northern parts of the country that are self-sufficient, while the eastern and southern parts of the country face water shortages.
• Water quality deterioration due to human activities.

• Uneven distribution of population and hyperurbanization. The population is largely concentrated in the eastern coastal areas which tend to be under stress. Furthermore, the concentration of almost half the Greek population in Athens, in the poorest water region of the country, and the seasonal influx of visitors to the Greek islands, exacerbates the water shortage problems.
• Overexploitation and salinisation of aquifers, which is a common problem in the areas dependent on groundwater, and particularly in coastal areas.
• Focus on short–term developmental policies rather on the actual water resource management.
• Lack of inter-ministerial coordination and overlaps in areas of authority. Instead of an organized, coordinated approach to water resources management, measures taken are only partial and generally ineffective.
• Absence of master plans or national guidelines for comprehensive planning and management in the past, despite recent efforts for responding to that problem.
• Lack of organized, collective efforts, which are required to respond to the demanding provisions of the Water Framework Directive and other EU legislation and operational guidelines.